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An urban marvel of its time, the Indus Valley Civilization (Mohenjo‑Daro, Harappa) featured advanced city planning, standardized bricks, drainage systems, and trade links to Mesopotamia. Despite its sophistication, its script remains undeciphered.With the arrival of Indo-Aryans came Sanskrit, the hymns of the Rigveda, rituals, the roots of Hindu beliefs, and philosophical traditions that matured through the Upanishads. Cultural achievements include Panini’s grammar and developments in Ayurveda.Sixteen powerful regional kingdoms—Mahajanapadas—emerged across the Gangetic plains. This transformative period saw the births of Buddhism and Jainism and the rise of political centers like Magadha.