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Contemporary efforts to revitalize the civic mission of higher education in America have revived an age-old republican tradition of teaching students to be responsible citizens, particularly through the study of rhetoric, composition, and oratory. This book examines the political, cultural, economic, and religious agendas that drove the various - and often conflicting - curricula and contrasting visions of what good citizenship entails. Mark Garrett Longaker argues that higher education more than 200 years ago allowed actors with differing political and economic interests to wrestle over the fate of American citizenship. Then, as today, there was widespread agreement that civic training was essential in higher education, but there were also sharp differences in the various visions of what proper republican citizenship entailed and how to prepare for it. Longaker studies in detail the specific trends in rhetorical education offered at various early institutions - such as Yale, Columbia, Pennsylvania, and William and Mary - with analyses of student lecture notes, classroom activities, disputation exercises, reading lists, lecture outlines, and literary society records.These documents reveal an extraordinary range of economic and philosophical interests and allegiances - agrarian, commercial, spiritual, communal, and belletristic - specific to each institution. The findings challenge and complicate a widely held belief that early American civic education occurred in a halcyon era of united democratic republicanism. Recognition that there are multiple ways to practice democratic citizenship and to enact democratic discourse, historically as well as today, best serves the goal of civic education, Longaker argues.